Creatine: Beyond Muscle Performance
Many people think of muscle building when they hear the word creatine.
Creatine is a protein derivative composed of three amino acids: arginine, glycine, and methionine. Creatine is naturally obtained from foods—particularly meats, fish, and poultry—and can also be synthesized in the body, primarily in the liver and kidneys.
Creatine is found in all the cells in our bodies, with the largest stores located in skeletal muscle. In muscle tissue, creatine is stored as creatine phosphate (CP), which plays an essential role in metabolism by helping rapidly regenerate adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the primary fuel that powers many cellular functions, including muscle contraction.
In the early 1990s, pioneering research demonstrated that dietary creatine supplementation could significantly increase muscle creatine stores. In theory, maximizing muscle CP stores should enhance several aspects of muscular performance. Over the past three decades, strong evidence has accumulated supporting this idea. Research has shown that creatine supplementation can improve muscular performance in several ways, including enhancing power output during repeated high-intensity efforts, increasing maximal strength, and supporting muscle growth when combined with resistance training.
Creatine in the Brain
Brain tissue is highly energetic and constantly uses ATP to carry out its functions. Just as optimizing CP stores in skeletal muscles supports muscle performance, there is growing evidence that increasing creatine stores in the brain may enhance brain function in several ways.
Brain injury and transient stressors such as sleep deprivation may reduce brain creatine levels, potentially impairing cognitive performance. In contrast, higher dietary creatine intake has been associated with improved short-term memory in some populations.
Creatine supplementation has been shown to increase brain creatine content. However, research examining measurable effects on cognitive performance is still emerging. Some early evidence suggests that creatine supplementation may serve as a useful adjunct therapy in treating certain mental health conditions, including depression and post-traumatic stress disorder. Animal studies also suggest that creatine supplementation may protect against traumatic brain injury.
Are There Any Negative Side Effects? What Is the Best Way to Use Creatine?
Creatine has been extensively studied for more than thirty years. Because the body produces creatine and we get it from food, it is generally considered safe for healthy individuals when used at recommended doses.
Supplementing creatine at typical doses—generally around 3–5 grams per day—has not been consistently associated with adverse health risks in healthy adults.
Creatine supplements come in several forms, including creatine monohydrate, creatine citrate, and creatine alkaline. Creatine monohydrate is the original and most widely studied form. While some products claim superior absorption or effectiveness, current research does not show clear evidence that alternative forms outperform creatine monohydrate.
If you choose to supplement creatine, a daily dose of about 3 grams can increase muscle creatine stores within about four weeks. Because skeletal muscle absorbs creatine more readily than brain tissue, slightly higher doses—around 5 grams per day—may be more effective at increasing brain creatine levels.
As with any supplement, it is always best to consult with a healthcare provider before starting creatine supplementation, particularly if you have underlying health conditions or take medications.
FAQs
Is creatine only beneficial for building muscle?
No. Creatine is best known for supporting strength, power, and muscle growth, but it also plays an important role in cellular energy production throughout the body. Emerging research is investigating potential benefits for brain function, cognition, and neurological and mental health.
Can creatine supplementation improve brain function?
Creatine supplementation can increase creatine stores in the brain, although brain tissue appears to respond differently than skeletal muscle. Some research suggests potential cognitive benefits, particularly during periods of increased demand such as sleep deprivation, but research into its broader effects on brain health is still developing.
What type of creatine supplement is best?
Creatine monohydrate is the most extensively studied form of creatine and has substantial evidence supporting its effectiveness. Although other forms are marketed as having superior absorption or benefits, current research has not established that they outperform creatine monohydrate.
How much creatine should you take each day?
A daily dose of approximately 3–5 grams is commonly used for creatine supplementation. Around 3 grams per day can gradually increase muscle creatine stores, while slightly higher doses may be needed to meaningfully increase creatine concentrations in the brain. Talk with your healthcare provider before beginning a supplement, particularly if you have underlying health conditions or take medications.
References
1Antonio, J., Candow, D. G., Forbes, S. C., Gualano, B., Jagim, A. R., Kreider, R. B., Rawson, E. S., Smith-Ryan, A. E., VanDusseldorp, T. A., Willoughby, D. S., & Ziegenfuss, T. N. (2021). Common questions and misconceptions about creatine supplementation: what does the scientific evidence really show?. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 18(1), 13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-021-00412-w
2Harris, R. C., Söderlund, K., & Hultman, E. (1992). Elevation of creatine in resting and exercised muscle of normal subjects by creatine supplementation. Clinical science (London, England : 1979), 83(3), 367–374. https://doi.org/10.1042/cs0830367
3Delpino, F. M., Figueiredo, L. M., Forbes, S. C., Candow, D. G., & Santos, H. O. (2022). Influence of age, sex, and type of exercise on the efficacy of creatine supplementation on lean body mass: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Nutrition (Burbank, Los Angeles County, Calif.), 103-104, 111791. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2022.111791
4Forbes, S. C., Cordingley, D. M., Cornish, S. M., Gualano, B., Roschel, H., Ostojic, S. M., Rawson, E. S., Roy, B. D., Prokopidis, K., Giannos, P., & Candow, D. G. (2022). Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Brain Function and Health. Nutrients, 14(5), 921. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14050921
5Oliveira, E. F., Forbes, S. C., Borges, E. Q., Machado, L. F., Candow, D. G., & Machado, M. (2023). Association between dietary creatine and visuospatial short-term memory in older adults. Nutrition and health, 29(4), 731–736. https://doi.org/10.1177/02601060221102273
6Amital, D., Vishne, T., Rubinow, A., & Levine, J. (2006). Observed effects of creatine monohydrate in a patient with depression and fibromyalgia. The American journal of psychiatry, 163(10), 1840–1841. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.2006.163.10.1840b
7Amital, D., Vishne, T., Roitman, S., Kotler, M., & Levine, J. (2006). Open study of creatine monohydrate in treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder. The Journal of clinical psychiatry, 67(5), 836–837. https://doi.org/10.4088/jcp.v67n0521c
8Sullivan, P. G., Geiger, J. D., Mattson, M. P., & Scheff, S. W. (2000). Dietary supplement creatine protects against traumatic brain injury. Annals of neurology, 48(5), 723–729. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11079535/
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Comments
Marco Machado
09/15/2026 at 12:05 PM
Congratulaitions! Excellent text!
Alexander Koch
08/27/2026 at 12:34 PM
Yes – I do believe 5g creatine/day would have a good potential to improve brain health
Jax
08/27/2026 at 12:11 PM
For muscle performance and brain health, do you recommend 5 grams per day?
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